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You are researching: Veterans Administration Medical Center
Cell Type
Tissue and Organ Biofabrication
Skin Tissue Engineering
Drug Delivery
Biological Molecules
Solid Dosage Drugs
Stem Cells
Personalised Pharmaceuticals
Inducend Pluripotent Stem Cells (IPSCs)
Drug Discovery
Cancer Cell Lines
All Groups
- Printing Technology
- Biomaterial
- Ceramics
- Metals
- Bioinks
- Fibronectin
- Xanthan Gum
- Paeoniflorin
- Methacrylated Silk Fibroin
- Heparin
- Fibrinogen
- (2-Hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA)
- Carrageenan
- Chitosan
- Glycerol
- Poly(glycidol)
- Agarose
- methacrylated chondroitin sulfate (CSMA)
- Silk Fibroin
- Methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA)
- Gellan Gum
- Alginate
- Gelatin-Methacryloyl (GelMA)
- Cellulose
- Hyaluronic Acid
- Polyethylene glycol (PEG) based
- Collagen
- Gelatin
- Novogel
- Peptide gel
- α-Bioink
- Elastin
- Matrigel
- Methacrylated Chitosan
- Pectin
- Pyrogallol
- Fibrin
- Methacrylated Collagen (CollMA)
- Glucosamine
- Non-cellularized gels/pastes
- 2-hydroxyethyl) methacrylate (HEMA)
- Paraffin
- Polyphenylene Oxide
- Acrylamide
- SEBS
- Ionic Liquids
- Jeffamine
- Mineral Oil
- Salecan
- Zein
- poly(octanediol-co-maleic anhydride-co-citrate) (POMaC)
- Poly(itaconate-co-citrate-cooctanediol) (PICO)
- Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
- Salt-based
- Acrylates
- 2-hydroxyethyl-methacrylate (HEMA)
- Magnetorheological fluid (MR fluid – MRF)
- Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)
- PEDOT
- Polyethylene
- Silicone
- Pluronic – Poloxamer
- Carbopol
- Epoxy
- poly (ethylene-co -vinyl acetate) (PEVA)
- Phenylacetylene
- Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm)
- Poly(Oxazoline)
- Poly(trimethylene carbonate)
- Polyisobutylene
- Konjac Gum
- Gelatin-Sucrose Matrix
- Chlorella Microalgae
- Poly(Vinyl Formal)
- Thermoplastics
- Micro/nano-particles
- Biological Molecules
- Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM)
- Solid Dosage Drugs
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- Tissue Models – Drug Discovery
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- In Vitro Models
- Bioelectronics
- Industrial
- Robotics
- Medical Devices
- Electronics – Robotics – Industrial
- Biomaterial Processing
- Tissue and Organ Biofabrication
- Liver tissue Engineering
- Muscle Tissue Engineering
- Nerve – Neural Tissue Engineering
- Meniscus Tissue Engineering
- Heart – Cardiac Patches Tissue Engineering
- Adipose Tissue Engineering
- Trachea Tissue Engineering
- Ocular Tissue Engineering
- Intervertebral Disc (IVD) Tissue Engineering
- Vascularization
- Skin Tissue Engineering
- Drug Delivery
- Cartilage Tissue Engineering
- Bone Tissue Engineering
- Drug Discovery
- Institution
- Myiongji University
- Hong Kong University
- Veterans Administration Medical Center
- University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland
- University of Michigan, Biointerfaces Institute
- Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute
- Kaohsiung Medical University
- Baylor College of Medicine
- L'Oreal
- University of Bordeaux
- KU Leuven
- Abu Dhabi University
- University of Sheffield
- DTU – Technical University of Denmark
- Hefei University
- Rice University
- University of Barcelona
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials
- University of Nantes
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC)
- University of Amsterdam
- Bayreuth University
- Ghent University
- National University of Singapore
- Adolphe Merkle Institute Fribourg
- Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW)
- Hallym University
- University of Wurzburg
- AO Research Institute (ARI)
- Chalmers University of Technology
- ETH Zurich
- Nanyang Technological University
- Utrecht Medical Center (UMC)
- University of Manchester
- University of Nottingham
- Trinity College
- National Institutes of Health (NIH)
- Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute
- University of Bucharest
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- Nanjing Medical University
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering (NIMTE)
- Queen Mary University
- Royal Free Hospital
- SINTEF
- University of Central Florida
- University of Freiburg
- Halle-Wittenberg University
- CIC biomaGUNE
- Chiao Tung University
- University of Geneva
- Novartis
- Karlsruhe institute of technology
- Shanghai University
- Technical University of Dresden
- University of Michigan – School of Dentistry
- University of Tel Aviv
- Aschaffenburg University
- Univerity of Hong Kong
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland
- Brown University
- Innsbruck University
- National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
- Tiangong University
- Harbin Institute of Technology
- Montreal University
- Anhui Polytechnic
- Jiao Tong University
- University of Toronto
- Politecnico di Torino
- Biomaterials & Bioinks
- Bioprinting Technologies
- Bioprinting Applications
- Cell Type
- Organoids
- Meniscus Cells
- Skeletal Muscle-Derived Cells (SkMDCs)
- Hepatocytes
- Monocytes
- Neutrophils
- Macrophages
- Corneal Stromal Cells
- Mesothelial cells
- Adipocytes
- Synoviocytes
- Human Trabecular Meshwork Cells
- Epithelial
- Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs)
- Spheroids
- Keratinocytes
- Neurons
- Endothelial
- CardioMyocites
- Osteoblasts
- Articular cartilage progenitor cells (ACPCs)
- Cancer Cell Lines
- Chondrocytes
- Fibroblasts
- Myoblasts
- Melanocytes
- Retinal
- Embrionic Kidney (HEK)
- β cells
- Pericytes
- Bacteria
- Tenocytes
- Stem Cells
AUTHOR
Title
A dual osteoconductive-osteoprotective implantable device for vertical alveolar ridge augmentation
[Abstract]
Year
2023
Journal/Proceedings
Frontiers in Dental Medicine
Reftype
DOI/URL
DOI
Groups
AbstractRepair of large oral bone defects such as vertical alveolar ridge augmentation could benefit from the rapidly developing additive manufacturing technology used to create personalized osteoconductive devices made from porous tricalcium phosphate/hydroxyapatite (TCP/HA)-based bioceramics. These devices can be also used as hydrogel carriers to improve their osteogenic potential. However, the TCP/HA constructs are prone to brittle fracture, therefore their use in clinical situations is difficult. As a solution, we propose the protection of this osteoconductive multi-material (herein called “core”) with a shape-matched “cover” made from biocompatible poly-ɛ-caprolactone (PCL), which is a ductile, and thus more resistant polymeric material. In this report, we present a workflow starting from patient-specific medical scan in Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) format files, up to the design and 3D printing of a hydrogel-loaded porous TCP/HA core and of its corresponding PCL cover. This cover could also facilitate the anchoring of the device to the patient's defect site via fixing screws. The large, linearly aligned pores in the TCP/HA bioceramic core, their sizes, and their filling with an alginate hydrogel were analyzed by micro-CT. Moreover, we created a finite element analysis (FEA) model of this dual-function device, which permits the simulation of its mechanical behavior in various anticipated clinical situations, as well as optimization before surgery. In conclusion, we designed and 3D-printed a novel, structurally complex multi-material osteoconductive-osteoprotective device with anticipated mechanical properties suitable for large-defect oral bone regeneration.
AUTHOR
Title
3D Printing of Human Ossicle Models for the Biofabrication of Personalized Middle Ear Prostheses
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThe middle ear bones (‘ossicles’) may become severely damaged due to accidents or to diseases. In these situations, the most common current treatments include replacing them with cadaver-derived ossicles, using a metal (usually titanium) prosthesis, or introducing bridges made of biocompatible ceramics. Neither of these solutions is ideal, due to the difficulty in finding or producing shape-matching replacements. However, the advent of additive manufacturing applications to biomedical problems has created the possibility of 3D-printing anatomically correct, shape- and size-personalized ossicle prostheses. To demonstrate this concept, we generated and printed several models of ossicles, as solid, porous, or soft material structures. These models were first printed with a plottable calcium phosphate/hydroxyapatite paste by extrusion on a solid support or embedded in a Carbopol hydrogel bath, followed by temperature-induced hardening. We then also printed an ossicle model with this ceramic in a porous format, followed by loading and crosslinking an alginate hydrogel within the pores, which was validated by microCT imaging. Finally, ossicle models were printed using alginate as well as a cell-containing nanocellulose-based bioink, within the supporting hydrogel bath. In selected cases, the devised workflow and the printouts were tested for repeatability. In conclusion, we demonstrate that moving beyond simplistic geometric bridges to anatomically realistic constructs is possible by 3D printing with various biocompatible materials and hydrogels, thus opening the way towards the in vitro generation of personalized middle ear prostheses for implantation.
AUTHOR
Title
3D Printing of Human Ossicle Models for the Biofabrication of Personalized Middle Ear Prostheses
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThe middle ear bones (‘ossicles’) may become severely damaged due to accidents or to diseases. In these situations, the most common current treatments include replacing them with cadaver-derived ossicles, using a metal (usually titanium) prosthesis, or introducing bridges made of biocompatible ceramics. Neither of these solutions is ideal, due to the difficulty in finding or producing shape-matching replacements. However, the advent of additive manufacturing applications to biomedical problems has created the possibility of 3D-printing anatomically correct, shape- and size-personalized ossicle prostheses. To demonstrate this concept, we generated and printed several models of ossicles, as solid, porous, or soft material structures. These models were first printed with a plottable calcium phosphate/hydroxyapatite paste by extrusion on a solid support or embedded in a Carbopol hydrogel bath, followed by temperature-induced hardening. We then also printed an ossicle model with this ceramic in a porous format, followed by loading and crosslinking an alginate hydrogel within the pores, which was validated by microCT imaging. Finally, ossicle models were printed using alginate as well as a cell-containing nanocellulose-based bioink, within the supporting hydrogel bath. In selected cases, the devised workflow and the printouts were tested for repeatability. In conclusion, we demonstrate that moving beyond simplistic geometric bridges to anatomically realistic constructs is possible by 3D printing with various biocompatible materials and hydrogels, thus opening the way towards the in vitro generation of personalized middle ear prostheses for implantation.
AUTHOR
Title
3D Printing of Human Ossicle Models for the Biofabrication of Personalized Middle Ear Prostheses
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThe middle ear bones (‘ossicles’) may become severely damaged due to accidents or to diseases. In these situations, the most common current treatments include replacing them with cadaver-derived ossicles, using a metal (usually titanium) prosthesis, or introducing bridges made of biocompatible ceramics. Neither of these solutions is ideal, due to the difficulty in finding or producing shape-matching replacements. However, the advent of additive manufacturing applications to biomedical problems has created the possibility of 3D-printing anatomically correct, shape- and size-personalized ossicle prostheses. To demonstrate this concept, we generated and printed several models of ossicles, as solid, porous, or soft material structures. These models were first printed with a plottable calcium phosphate/hydroxyapatite paste by extrusion on a solid support or embedded in a Carbopol hydrogel bath, followed by temperature-induced hardening. We then also printed an ossicle model with this ceramic in a porous format, followed by loading and crosslinking an alginate hydrogel within the pores, which was validated by microCT imaging. Finally, ossicle models were printed using alginate as well as a cell-containing nanocellulose-based bioink, within the supporting hydrogel bath. In selected cases, the devised workflow and the printouts were tested for repeatability. In conclusion, we demonstrate that moving beyond simplistic geometric bridges to anatomically realistic constructs is possible by 3D printing with various biocompatible materials and hydrogels, thus opening the way towards the in vitro generation of personalized middle ear prostheses for implantation.
AUTHOR
Title
Design and Implementation of Anatomically Inspired Mesenteric and Intestinal Vascular Patterns for Personalized 3D Bioprinting
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractRecent progress in bioprinting has made possible the creation of complex 3D intestinal constructs, including vascularized villi. However, for their integration into functional units useful for experimentation or implantation, the next challenge is to endow them with a larger-scale, anatomically realistic vasculature. In general, the perfusion of bioprinted constructs has remained difficult, and the current solution is to provide them with mostly linear and simply branched channels. To address this limitation, here we demonstrated an image analysis-based workflow leading through computer-assisted design from anatomic images of rodent mesentery and colon to the actual printing of such patterns with paste and hydrogel bioinks. Moreover, we reverse-engineered the 2D intestinal image-derived designs into cylindrical objects, and 3D-printed them in a support hydrogel. These results open the path towards generation of more realistically vascularized tissue constructs for a variety of personalized medicine applications.
AUTHOR
Title
Design and Implementation of Anatomically Inspired Mesenteric and Intestinal Vascular Patterns for Personalized 3D Bioprinting
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractRecent progress in bioprinting has made possible the creation of complex 3D intestinal constructs, including vascularized villi. However, for their integration into functional units useful for experimentation or implantation, the next challenge is to endow them with a larger-scale, anatomically realistic vasculature. In general, the perfusion of bioprinted constructs has remained difficult, and the current solution is to provide them with mostly linear and simply branched channels. To address this limitation, here we demonstrated an image analysis-based workflow leading through computer-assisted design from anatomic images of rodent mesentery and colon to the actual printing of such patterns with paste and hydrogel bioinks. Moreover, we reverse-engineered the 2D intestinal image-derived designs into cylindrical objects, and 3D-printed them in a support hydrogel. These results open the path towards generation of more realistically vascularized tissue constructs for a variety of personalized medicine applications.
AUTHOR
Title
Design and Implementation of Anatomically Inspired Mesenteric and Intestinal Vascular Patterns for Personalized 3D Bioprinting
[Abstract]
Year
2022
Journal/Proceedings
Applied Sciences
Reftype
Groups
AbstractRecent progress in bioprinting has made possible the creation of complex 3D intestinal constructs, including vascularized villi. However, for their integration into functional units useful for experimentation or implantation, the next challenge is to endow them with a larger-scale, anatomically realistic vasculature. In general, the perfusion of bioprinted constructs has remained difficult, and the current solution is to provide them with mostly linear and simply branched channels. To address this limitation, here we demonstrated an image analysis-based workflow leading through computer-assisted design from anatomic images of rodent mesentery and colon to the actual printing of such patterns with paste and hydrogel bioinks. Moreover, we reverse-engineered the 2D intestinal image-derived designs into cylindrical objects, and 3D-printed them in a support hydrogel. These results open the path towards generation of more realistically vascularized tissue constructs for a variety of personalized medicine applications.
AUTHOR
Title
An image analysis-based workflow for 3D bioprinting of anatomically realistic retinal vascular patterns
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
Bioprinting
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThere is an enduring need for vascularization of bioprinted constructs with vascular networks optimized for distribution of nutrient-containing fluids, both for in vitro applications and in vivo implantation. However, most of the efforts in this field were directed so far towards generation of simple linear channels, often lined with endothelial cells only, and thus lacking the anatomical details of real vascular networks. To start addressing this need, here we explored the possibility of using actual vascular patterns derived from human ocular fundus for instructing the 3D printing activity. In order to assign to these patterns the organ-specific topology, and eventually vessel branch-defined cellular composition, we describe the use of the branching analysis program VESGEN 2D for planning a workflow that links the primary vascular images with their 3D printing with bioinks. To this end, we show how to process flat vascular images and, for an even more realistic representation, how to retro-engineer concave retinal patterns from flat images and to print them in a supporting hydrogel. This work opens the possibility of bioprinting more anatomically realistic vascular networks, and thus to eventually improve the vascularization of living tissue-engineered constructs.
AUTHOR
Title
An image analysis-based workflow for 3D bioprinting of anatomically realistic retinal vascular patterns
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
Bioprinting
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThere is an enduring need for vascularization of bioprinted constructs with vascular networks optimized for distribution of nutrient-containing fluids, both for in vitro applications and in vivo implantation. However, most of the efforts in this field were directed so far towards generation of simple linear channels, often lined with endothelial cells only, and thus lacking the anatomical details of real vascular networks. To start addressing this need, here we explored the possibility of using actual vascular patterns derived from human ocular fundus for instructing the 3D printing activity. In order to assign to these patterns the organ-specific topology, and eventually vessel branch-defined cellular composition, we describe the use of the branching analysis program VESGEN 2D for planning a workflow that links the primary vascular images with their 3D printing with bioinks. To this end, we show how to process flat vascular images and, for an even more realistic representation, how to retro-engineer concave retinal patterns from flat images and to print them in a supporting hydrogel. This work opens the possibility of bioprinting more anatomically realistic vascular networks, and thus to eventually improve the vascularization of living tissue-engineered constructs.
AUTHOR
Title
An image analysis-based workflow for 3D bioprinting of anatomically realistic retinal vascular patterns
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
Bioprinting
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThere is an enduring need for vascularization of bioprinted constructs with vascular networks optimized for distribution of nutrient-containing fluids, both for in vitro applications and in vivo implantation. However, most of the efforts in this field were directed so far towards generation of simple linear channels, often lined with endothelial cells only, and thus lacking the anatomical details of real vascular networks. To start addressing this need, here we explored the possibility of using actual vascular patterns derived from human ocular fundus for instructing the 3D printing activity. In order to assign to these patterns the organ-specific topology, and eventually vessel branch-defined cellular composition, we describe the use of the branching analysis program VESGEN 2D for planning a workflow that links the primary vascular images with their 3D printing with bioinks. To this end, we show how to process flat vascular images and, for an even more realistic representation, how to retro-engineer concave retinal patterns from flat images and to print them in a supporting hydrogel. This work opens the possibility of bioprinting more anatomically realistic vascular networks, and thus to eventually improve the vascularization of living tissue-engineered constructs.
AUTHOR
Title
An image analysis-based workflow for 3D bioprinting of anatomically realistic retinal vascular patterns
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
Bioprinting
Reftype
Groups
AbstractThere is an enduring need for vascularization of bioprinted constructs with vascular networks optimized for distribution of nutrient-containing fluids, both for in vitro applications and in vivo implantation. However, most of the efforts in this field were directed so far towards generation of simple linear channels, often lined with endothelial cells only, and thus lacking the anatomical details of real vascular networks. To start addressing this need, here we explored the possibility of using actual vascular patterns derived from human ocular fundus for instructing the 3D printing activity. In order to assign to these patterns the organ-specific topology, and eventually vessel branch-defined cellular composition, we describe the use of the branching analysis program VESGEN 2D for planning a workflow that links the primary vascular images with their 3D printing with bioinks. To this end, we show how to process flat vascular images and, for an even more realistic representation, how to retro-engineer concave retinal patterns from flat images and to print them in a supporting hydrogel. This work opens the possibility of bioprinting more anatomically realistic vascular networks, and thus to eventually improve the vascularization of living tissue-engineered constructs.
AUTHOR
Title
Vascular Patterning as Integrative Readout of Complex Molecular and Physiological Signaling by VESsel GENeration Analysis
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
J Vasc Res
Reftype
DOI/URL
DOI
Groups
AbstractThe molecular signaling cascades that regulate angiogenesis and microvascular remodeling are fundamental to normal development, healthy physiology, and pathologies such as inflammation and cancer. Yet quantifying such complex, fractally branching vascular patterns remains difficult. We review application of NASA’s globally available, freely downloadable VESsel GENeration (VESGEN) Analysis software to numerous examples of 2D vascular trees, networks, and tree-network composites. Upon input of a binary vascular image, automated output includes informative vascular maps and quantification of parameters such as tortuosity, fractal dimension, vessel diameter, area, length, number, and branch point. Previous research has demonstrated that cytokines and therapeutics such as vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor (fibroblast growth factor-2), transforming growth factor-beta-1, and steroid triamcinolone acetonide specify unique “fingerprint” or “biomarker” vascular patterns that integrate dominant signaling with physiological response. In vivo experimental examples described here include vascular response to keratinocyte growth factor, a novel vessel tortuosity factor; angiogenic inhibition in humanized tumor xenografts by the anti-angiogenesis drug leronlimab; intestinal vascular inflammation with probiotic protection by Saccharomyces boulardii, and a workflow programming of vascular architecture for 3D bioprinting of regenerative tissues from 2D images. Microvascular remodeling in the human retina is described for astronaut risks in microgravity, vessel tortuosity in diabetic retinopathy, and venous occlusive disease.
AUTHOR
Title
Vascular Patterning as Integrative Readout of Complex Molecular and Physiological Signaling by VESsel GENeration Analysis
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
J Vasc Res
Reftype
DOI/URL
DOI
Groups
AbstractThe molecular signaling cascades that regulate angiogenesis and microvascular remodeling are fundamental to normal development, healthy physiology, and pathologies such as inflammation and cancer. Yet quantifying such complex, fractally branching vascular patterns remains difficult. We review application of NASA’s globally available, freely downloadable VESsel GENeration (VESGEN) Analysis software to numerous examples of 2D vascular trees, networks, and tree-network composites. Upon input of a binary vascular image, automated output includes informative vascular maps and quantification of parameters such as tortuosity, fractal dimension, vessel diameter, area, length, number, and branch point. Previous research has demonstrated that cytokines and therapeutics such as vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor (fibroblast growth factor-2), transforming growth factor-beta-1, and steroid triamcinolone acetonide specify unique “fingerprint” or “biomarker” vascular patterns that integrate dominant signaling with physiological response. In vivo experimental examples described here include vascular response to keratinocyte growth factor, a novel vessel tortuosity factor; angiogenic inhibition in humanized tumor xenografts by the anti-angiogenesis drug leronlimab; intestinal vascular inflammation with probiotic protection by Saccharomyces boulardii, and a workflow programming of vascular architecture for 3D bioprinting of regenerative tissues from 2D images. Microvascular remodeling in the human retina is described for astronaut risks in microgravity, vessel tortuosity in diabetic retinopathy, and venous occlusive disease.
AUTHOR
Title
Vascular Patterning as Integrative Readout of Complex Molecular and Physiological Signaling by VESsel GENeration Analysis
[Abstract]
Year
2021
Journal/Proceedings
J Vasc Res
Reftype
DOI/URL
DOI
Groups
AbstractThe molecular signaling cascades that regulate angiogenesis and microvascular remodeling are fundamental to normal development, healthy physiology, and pathologies such as inflammation and cancer. Yet quantifying such complex, fractally branching vascular patterns remains difficult. We review application of NASA’s globally available, freely downloadable VESsel GENeration (VESGEN) Analysis software to numerous examples of 2D vascular trees, networks, and tree-network composites. Upon input of a binary vascular image, automated output includes informative vascular maps and quantification of parameters such as tortuosity, fractal dimension, vessel diameter, area, length, number, and branch point. Previous research has demonstrated that cytokines and therapeutics such as vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor (fibroblast growth factor-2), transforming growth factor-beta-1, and steroid triamcinolone acetonide specify unique “fingerprint” or “biomarker” vascular patterns that integrate dominant signaling with physiological response. In vivo experimental examples described here include vascular response to keratinocyte growth factor, a novel vessel tortuosity factor; angiogenic inhibition in humanized tumor xenografts by the anti-angiogenesis drug leronlimab; intestinal vascular inflammation with probiotic protection by Saccharomyces boulardii, and a workflow programming of vascular architecture for 3D bioprinting of regenerative tissues from 2D images. Microvascular remodeling in the human retina is described for astronaut risks in microgravity, vessel tortuosity in diabetic retinopathy, and venous occlusive disease.