RESOURCES

Abstract
The global prevalence of respiratory diseases caused by infectious pathogens has resulted in an increased demand for realistic in-vitro alveolar lung models to serve as suitable disease models. This demand has resulted in the fabrication of numerous two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) in-vitro alveolar lung models. The ability to fabricate these 3D in-vitro alveolar lung models in an automated manner with high repeatability and reliability is important for potential scalable production. In this study, we reported the fabrication of human triple-layered alveolar lung models comprising of human lung epithelial cells, human endothelial cells, and human lung fibroblasts using the drop-on-demand (DOD) 3D bioprinting technique. The polyvinylpyrrolidone-based bio-inks and the use of a 300 mm nozzle diameter improved the repeatability of the bioprinting process by achieving consistent cell output over time using different human alveolar lung cells. The 3D bioprinted human triple-layered alveolar lung models were able to maintain cell viability with relative similar proliferation profile over time as compared to non-printed cells. This DOD 3D bioprinting platform offers an attractive tool for highly repeatable and scalable fabrication of 3D in-vitro human alveolar lung models.

Abstract
Three dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology has been making a progressive advancement in the field of tissue engineering to produce tissue constructs that mimic the shape, framework, and microenvironment of an organ. The technology has not only paved the way to organ development but has been widely studied for its application in drug and cosmetic testing using 3D bioprinted constructs. However, not much has been explored on the utilization of bioprinting technology for the development of tumor models to test anti-cancer drug efficacy. The conventional methodology involves a two dimensional (2D) monolayer model to test cellular drug response which has multiple limitations owing to its inability to mimic the natural tissue environment. The choice of bioink for 3D bioprinting is critical as cell morphology and proliferation depend greatly on the property of bioink. In this study, we developed a multicomponent bioink composed of alginate, diethylaminoethyl cellulose, gelatin, and collagen peptide to generate a 3D bioprinted construct. The bioink has been characterised and validated for its printability, shape fidelity and biocompatibility to be used for generating tumor models. Further, a bioprinted tumor model was developed using lung cancer cell line and the efficacy of 3D printed construct for drug screening application was established.

Abstract
Increasing ethical and biological concerns require a paradigm shift toward animal-free testing strategies for drug testing and hazard assessments. To this end, the application of bioprinting technology in the field of biomedicine is driving a rapid progress in tissue engineering. In particular, standardized and reproducible in vitro models produced by three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technique represent a possible alternative to animal models, enabling in vitro studies relevant to in vivo conditions. The innovative approach of 3D bioprinting allows a spatially controlled deposition of cells and biomaterial in a layer-by-layer fashion providing a platform for engineering reproducible models. However, despite the promising and revolutionizing character of 3D bioprinting technology, standardized protocols providing detailed instructions are lacking. Here, we provide a protocol for the automatized printing of simple alveolar, bronchial, and intestine epithelial cell layers as the basis for more complex respiratory and gastrointestinal tissue models. Such systems will be useful for high-throughput toxicity screening and drug efficacy evaluation.

Abstract
Besides deposition, pulmonary bioavailability is determined by dissolution of particles in the scarce epithelial fluid and by cellular API uptake. In the present work, we have developed an experimental in vitro model, which is combining the state-of-the-art next generation impactor (NGI), used for aerodynamic performance assessment of inhalation products, with a culture of human alveolar A549 epithelial cells to study the fate of inhaled drugs following lung deposition. The goal was to investigate five previously developed nano-milled and spray-dried budesonide formulations and to examine the suitability of the in vitro test model. The NGI dissolution cups of stages 3, 4, and 5 were transformed to accommodate cell culture inserts while assuring minimal interference with the air flow. A549 cells were cultivated at the air–liquid interface on Corning® Matrigel® -coated inserts. After deposition of aerodynamically classified powders on the cell cultures, budesonide amount was determined on the cell surface, in the interior of the cell monolayer, and in the basal solution for four to eight hours. Significant differences in the total deposited drug amount and the amount remaining on the cell surface at the end of the experiment were found between different formulations and NGI stages. Roughly 50% of budesonide was taken up by the cells and converted to a large extent to its metabolic conjugate with oleic acid for all formulations and stages. Prolonged time required for complete drug dissolution and cell uptake in case of large deposited powder amounts suggested initial drug saturation of the surfactant layer of the cell surface. Discrimination between formulations with respect to time scale of dissolution and cell uptake was possible with the present test model providing useful insights into the biopharmaceutical performance of developed formulations that may be relevant for predicting local bioavailability. The absolute quantitative result of cell uptake and permeation into the systemic compartment is unreliable, though, because of partly compromised cell membrane integrity due to particle impaction and professed leakiness of A549 monolayer tight junctions, respectively.

Abstract
Intensive efforts in recent years to develop and commercialize in vitro alternatives in the field of risk assessment have yielded new promising two- and three dimensional (3D) cell culture models. Nevertheless, a realistic 3D in vitro alveolar model is not available yet. Here we report on the biofabrication of the human air-blood tissue barrier analogue composed of an endothelial cell, basement membrane and epithelial cell layer by using a bioprinting technology. In contrary to the manual method, we demonstrate that this technique enables automatized and reproducible creation of thinner and more homogeneous cell layers, which is required for an optimal air-blood tissue barrier. This bioprinting platform will offer an excellent tool to engineer an advanced 3D lung model for high-throughput screening for safety assessment and drug efficacy testing.